The perception of bottled water as exceptionally clean is the main factor in its popularity. However, research shows that this product carries risks for both health and the environment, writes Professor Muhammad Wakil Shahzad for The Conversation. He also talks about an interesting alternative his team is working on.
Is this water safe for health?
A 2025 study found that bottled water may not be as safe as commonly believed. Tests of water sold in reusable containers and plastic bottles showed high levels of bacterial contamination.
These findings add to a growing body of research suggesting that in many regions, tap water is not only safer but often more strictly regulated and reliably controlled than bottled alternatives.
In most developed countries, stricter legal standards and testing requirements apply to tap water. Public water supply systems are daily checked for bacteria, heavy metals, and pesticides.
In the UK, the Drinking Water Inspectorate openly publishes inspection results. In the US, suppliers must comply with National Primary Drinking Water Regulations under the supervision of the Environmental Protection Agency. Across Europe, water quality is regulated by the EU Drinking Water Directive.
Bottled water, in contrast, is regulated as a packaged food product. It is tested less frequently, and manufacturers are not obliged to publish detailed quality reports.
Research has found contaminants in bottled water such as microplastics, chemical residues, and bacteria. In 2024, tens of thousands of plastic particles per liter were found in some samples. Other data indicate that bottled water often has higher concentrations of microplastics than tap water. This is potentially linked to risks of inflammation, hormonal disturbances, and particle accumulation in human organs.
Plastic bottles can also release chemicals such as antimony, phthalates, and bisphenol analogues. Antimony is a catalyst for PET bottle production; polyethylene is the most common plastic for disposable utensils. Phthalates are plasticizers that give plastic flexibility. Bisphenol analogues, such as BPS or BPF, are similar to BPA – a substance used to harden some plastics and coat food and beverage cans. These substances can leach into water, especially when bottles are exposed to heat: in cars, delivery vans, or direct sunlight.
Scientists are concerned that some of these compounds can act as endocrine disruptors, interfering with the hormonal system. High exposure to certain phthalates and bisphenols is linked to reproductive health problems, metabolism, and development.
Although the levels found in bottled water are typically low, the long-term risks are not yet fully understood. Researchers are now studying the effects of regular, chronic consumption, especially given the growing popularity of bottled water worldwide.
Bottled water is not sterile. After opening the bottle, microorganisms begin to multiply rapidly. An unfinished bottle left in a warm car becomes an ideal environment for microbial growth. When single-use bottles are reused, bacteria from saliva and the environment can also enter the water.
Tap water, in turn, usually contains beneficial minerals, which is well-documented in public health studies. In the UK and other countries, fluoride is added to some systems to prevent tooth decay. The mineral composition of bottled water varies greatly, and studies show that children who drink bottled water more often have higher rates of tooth decay.
How ecological is your bottle?
Excessive consumption of bottled water also harms the planet. Global demand is so high that about a million plastic bottles are purchased worldwide every minute.
The Danish water technology company Aquaporin estimates that producing one liter of bottled water can require two thousand times more energy than supplying a liter of tap water.
The carbon footprint is also significantly higher: on average about eighty grams of carbon dioxide per liter, when bottling, transportation, and cooling are taken into account.
The discussion around bottled water cannot be separated from the broader issue of global water supply. Access to clean drinking water remains a pressing issue worldwide. Climate change, rapid urbanization, industrial pollution, and population growth are diminishing freshwater supplies. UNESCO warns that more than two billion people already live in regions with high water stress.
To offer an alternative, a team of researchers is working on Solar2Water – a portable, solar-powered device that extracts clean drinking water directly from the air.
This is a decentralized system: it produces water at the point of use and does not depend on long pipelines or large treatment facilities. On-site water production reduces reliance on single-use plastics and lessens the burden on municipal systems.
As infrastructure becomes more strained, such decentralized systems can complement existing networks. They enhance resilience during climate disasters, reduce the need for plastic, and help communities where trust in tap water has been eroded.
Bottled water remains necessary during emergencies or where tap water is truly unsafe. But in most developed countries, it is neither safer nor cleaner than tap water. As climate change and pollution affect access to resources, understanding the real difference between bottled and tap water becomes more important than ever.
About the author:
Muhammad Wakil Shahzad is a Professor and Chair of Advanced Energy and Sustainability in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Northumbria University (Newcastle, UK). He is the founder and CEO of the EcoTech X team, which develops Solar 2 Water generators. The project received funding from Northern Accelerator.
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